Pre-historic

This article or section has multiple issues. Please help improve the article or discuss these issues on the talk page.

It is missing citations or footnotes. Please help improve it by adding inline citations. Tagged since November 2008.
It may not present a worldwide view of the subject. Tagged since November 2008.

Art history series
Prehistoric art
Ancient art history
Western art history
Eastern art history
Islamic art history
Western painting
History of painting
Art history

In the history of art, prehistoric art is all art produced in preliterate, prehistorical cultures beginning somewhere in very late geological history, and generally continuing until that culture either develops writing or other methods of record-keeping, or it makes significant contact with another culture that has.

The very earliest human artifacts showing evidence of workmanship with an artistic purpose are a subject of some debate; it is clear that such workmanship existed by 40,000 years ago in the Upper Palaeolithic era. From the Upper Palaeolithic through the Mesolithic, cave paintings and portable art like figurines and beads predominated, with decorative figured workings also seen on some utilitarian objects. In the Neolithic evidence of early pottery appeared, as did sculpture and the construction of megaliths. Early rock art also first appeared in the Neolithic. The advent of metalworking in the Bronze Age brought another increase in mediums used for art, an increase in stylistic diversity, and the creation of objects that did not have any obvious function other than art. It also saw the development in some areas of artisans, a class of people specializing in the production of art, as well as early writing systems. By the Iron Age, civilizations with writing had arisen from Ancient Egypt to Ancient China.

Many indigenous peoples from around the world continued to produce artistics works distinctive to their geographic area and culture, until exploration and commerce brought record-keeping methods to them. Some cultures, notably the Maya civilization, independently developed writing during the time they flourished, which was then later lost. These cultures are generally considered prehistoric, especially if their writing systems have not been deciphered.

Palaeolithic era

Earliest controversial finds

Unequivocal evidence of artistic expression is known only from the Upper Palaeolithic, created by Homo sapiens. However, Homo erectus had long before produced seemingly aimless patterns on artifacts such as is those found at Bilzingsleben in Thuringia, and these might be understood as a precursor to art, as well as to reveal some intent of the artificer to decorate, to fashion beyond practical necessity. The symmetry and attention given to the shape of a tool has led authors to see Middle Palaeolithic hand axes and especially laurel points as artistic expressions as well. A recent find, the Mask of La Roche-Cotard in France, now suggests that Neanderthal humans may have developed a sophisticated and more complicated artistic tradition.

The earliest possible artwork yet discovered, the Venus of Tan-Tan is claimed by the discoverer to have an age between 500,000 and 300,000 BCE, during the Middle Acheulean period. Discovered in Morocco, it is about 6 centimeters long and resembles a human figurine.¹ Although this Moroccan artifact may have been created by natural geological processes, it appears to exhibit traces of human tool-work and bears evidence of having been painted; iron and manganese particles consistent with "manually applied paint residues" were found on the stone's surface, indicating that it may have been decorated by someone and used as a figurine, regardless of how it may have been formed. The identity of the artifact as evidence of human artistic expression, however, remains disputed.¹² A more or less comparable object from Israel, the Venus of Berekhat Ram, dated to roughly 250,000 BCE, has elicited similar controversy.³

It remains premature, then, to claim with any degree of confidence that art existed before the Upper Palaeolithic.

Blombos Cave

In 2002 in Blombos cave, situated in South Africa, stones were discovered engraved with grid or cross-hatch patterns, suggesting to some researchers that early Homo sapiens were capable of abstraction and production of abstract art or symbolic art. These impressive works date to 70,000 years ago, which makes them about 40,000 years older than the Lascaux-type cave paintings. Other remarkable discoveries from the Blombos cave include shell beads 30,000 years older than previously-known beads. While the datings of the Blombos artifacts are correct, there is no indication that they are indeed actual representations of advanced cognitive behavior similar to the depictional art later in Europe. Several archaeologists including Richard Klein of Stanford are hesitant to accept the Blombos caves as the first example of actual art.

Prehistoric arts of Asia

Prehistoric arts of Europe

Upper Palaeolithic period

Mesolithic period

The Mesolithic period has some examples of portable art, like painted pebbles (Azilien) from Birseck, Eremitage in Switzerland, and in some areas, like the Spanish Levant, stylized rock art. Patterns on utilitarian objects, like the paddles from Tybrind Vig, Denmark, are known as well.

Neolithic period

According to archaeological evidence, the Jōmon people in ancient Japan were the first to develop pottery, dating to the 11th millennium BCE. The Jōmon people were making clay figures and vessels decorated with patterns made by impressing the wet clay with braided or unbraided cord and sticks with a growing sophistication.

In Central Europe, many Neolithic cultures, like Linearbandkeramic, Lengyel and Vinča, produced female (rarely male) and animal statues that can be called art. Whether the elaborate pottery decoration of, for example, the Želiesovce and painted Lengyel style are to be classified as art is a matter of definition.

Megalithic monuments are found in the Neolithic from Portugal, through France, and across southern England to most of Wales and Ireland. They are also found in northern Germany and Poland, as well as in Egypt in the Sahara desert (at Nabata and other sites). They start in the 5th millennium BC, though some authors speculate on Mesolithic roots. Because of frequent re-use, this is difficult to prove. There are many sites for rock and cave art of engraved animal and human scenes in the Saharan area. Not as popular are the temples of Malta dating back to 3600 BCE these are the oldest free standing monuments in all the world with a post to lintel simple architecture but still very imposing structures. Many artistic similarities where found in Minoa (Crete) dating to the same period of the very well known Egyptian pyramids. While the best-known of these is Stonehenge, where the main structures date from the early Bronze Age, such monuments have been found throughout most of Western and Northern Europe, notably at Carnac, France, at Skara Brae in the Orkney Islands, in Portugal, and in Wiltshire, England, the area of Stonehenge, the Avebury circle, the tombs at West Kennet, and Woodhenge. One tomb found in Newgrange, Ireland, has its entrance marked with a massive stone carved with a complex design of spirals. The tomb of Knowth has rock-cut ornaments as well; one of them may be the oldest known image of the Moon. Many of these monuments were megalithic tombs, and archaeologists speculate that most have religious significance. Knowth is reputed to have approximately one third of all megalithic art in Western Europe.

Bronze Age

During the 3rd millennium BCE, however, the Bronze Age began in Europe, bringing with it a new medium for art. The increased efficiency of bronze tools also meant an increase in productivity, which led to a surplus — the first step in the creation of a class of artisans. Because of the increased wealth of society, luxury goods began to be created, especially decorated weapons. Examples include ceremonial bronze helmets, ornamental ax-heads and swords, elaborate instruments such as lurer, and other ceremonial objects without a practical purpose. Rock art, showing scenes from the daily life and religious rituals have been found in many areas, for example in Bohuslän Sweden and the Val Camonica in northern Italy.

Iron Age

The Iron Age saw the development of anthropomorphic sculptures, such as the warrior of Hirschlanden, and the statue from the Glauberg, Germany. Hallstatt artists in the early Iron Age favored geometric, abstract designs perhaps influenced by trade links with the Classical world.

The more elaborate and curvilinear La Tène artistic style developed in Europe in the later Iron Age from a centre in the Rhine valley but it soon spread across the continent. The rich chieftain classes appear to have encouraged ostentation and Classical influences such as bronze drinking vessels attest to a new fashion for wine drinking. Communal eating and drinking were an important part of Celtic society and culture and much of their art was often expressed through plates, knives, cauldrons and cups. Horse tack and weaponry were also subjects deemed fit for elaboration. Mythical animals were a common motif along with religious and natural subjects and their depiction is a mix between the naturalistic and the stylized. Megalithic art was still practiced, examples include the carved limestone pillars of the sanctuary at Entremont in modern day France. Personal adornment included torc necklaces whilst the introduction of coinage provided a further opportunity for artistic expression. Although the coins of this period are poorly made derivatives of Greek and Roman types, the more exuberant Celtic artistic style is still visible.

The famous late fourth century BCE chariot burial at Waldalgesheim in the Rhineland produced many fine examples of La Tène art including a bronze flagon and bronze plaques with repoussé human figures. Many pieces had curvy, organic styles though to be derived from Classical tendril patterns.

In much of western Europe elements of this artistic style can be discerned surviving in the art and architecture of the Roman colonies. In areas where Roman influence was missing altogether, the later Iron Age artistic tradition continued well into the historic period, perhaps most famously in Ireland and Northumbria.

Prehistoric arts of Africa

The earliest alleged art object found in Africa is the Venus of Tan-Tan at 500,000-300,000BCE; however, this claim is controversial (see above).

Early African rock art

The earliest undisputed African rock art dates back about 10,000 years. Rock carvings at the Wonderwerk Cave in South Africa have been dated to this age.⁵ Contentious dates as far back as 29,000 years have been obtained at a site in Tanzania. A site at the Apollo 11 Cave complex in Namibia has been dated to 27,000 years. This site contains figures of animals painted on stone plaquettes that were carried to the site; the dating is of the sedimentary layers the plaquettes were found in, so the age of the artifacts themselves is somewhat uncertain.⁶

Southern Africa

Artifacts related to the use of pigments have been dated to 125,000 years in Zimbabwe. Stone palettes stained with pigments have been found that date to 40,000 years, and discarded pigments aged 125,000 have been found in waste piles. Zimbabwe's oldest art finds date to at least 10,000 years (again dated to sediment layers containing painted rock fragments).⁶ There is a significant body of rock painting in the region around Matobo National Park of Zimbabwe dating from as early as 6,000BCE to 500CE.⁷

Significant bushman rock paintings exist in the Waterberg area above the Palala River and around Drakensberg in South Africa, some of which are considered to derive from the period 8000 BCE. These images are very clear and depict a variety of human and wildlife motifs, especially antelope. There appears to be a fairly continuous history of rock painting in this area; some of the art clearly dates into the 19th century. They include depictions of horses with riders, which were not introduced to the area until 1820s.⁸

Namibia, in addition to the Apollo 11 complex, has an significant array of Bushmen rock art near Twyfelfontein. This work is several thousand years old, and appears to end with the arrival of pastoral tribes in the area.⁹

East Africa

Most of East African rock art is found on a plateau between the Zambezi River and the Great Rift Valley. Running from southern Kenya and Uganda in the north, through Tanzania to Zambia and Malawi in the south, the rock art in this area is mostly paintings, although some engravings are found. It may never be known how early painting took place in this area, as the environment may well have destroyed the evidence.¹⁰ Most of the painting is of figures of animals and people, with some geometric shapes. Red paintings in Tanzania have been extensively studied, by the Leakeys (Mary and Louis) among others.¹¹ White paintings in Zambia appear to date from about 2,000 years ago, with the arrival of Bantu speakers in the area, an observation confirmed by oral history of modern tribes in the area.¹²

In the Horn of Africa there are stone megaliths and engravings, some of which are 3,500 years old. Dillo in Ethiopia has a hilltop covered with stone stelae, one of several such sites in southern Ethiopia dating from the 10th to the 14th century.¹³

Saharan Africa

About 12,000 years ago, following the last Ice Age, the Sahara region, which had been green prior to the Ice Age and desertified during it, again began to green, bringing large animals, as well as hunters. These hunters left stone tools (grinding stones, axes, and the like), and also left stone carvings of animals. The first naturalistic paintings of humans, dating back about 8,000 years, depict people with Negroid features. Pottery, apparently originating in the Nile River valley, spread as far west as Mali about 10,000 years ago. Noted sites containing early art include Tassili n'Ajjer in southern Algeria, Tadrart Acacus in Libya (A Unesco World Heritage site), and the Tibesti Mountains in northern Chad.¹⁴

Works of the Bubalus period span the Sahara, with the finest work, carvings of naturalistically depicted megafauna, concentrated in the central highlands. The Round Head Period is dominated by paintings of strangely-shaped human forms, and few animals, suggesting the artists were foragers. These works are largely limited to Tassili n'Ajjer and the Akakus Mountains. Toward the end of the period, images of domesticated animals, as well as decorative clothing and headdresses appear. Pastoral Period art was more focused on domestic scenes, including herding and dancing. The quality of artwork declined, as figures became more simplified.¹⁵

The Horse Period began in the eastern Sahara and spread west. Depictions from this period include carvings and paintings of horses, chariots, and warriors with metal weapons, although there are also frequent depictions of wildlife such as giraffes. Humans are generally depicted in a stylized way. Some of the chariot art bears resemblance to temple carvings from ancient Egypt. Occasionally, art panels are accompanied by Tifinagh script, still in use by the Berber people and the Tuareg today; however, modern Tuareg are generally unable to read these inscriptions. The final Camel period features carvings and paintings in which camels predominate, but also include humans with swords, and later, guns; the art of this time is relatively crude.¹⁶

Prehistoric arts of North America

Prehistoric arts of South and Central America

Humans have been documented to be living in South America for roughly 15,000 years; evidence of human habitation at Monte Verde in southern Chile, while still somewhat controversial, is difficult to dispute.¹⁷ Most early human sites in South America show evidence of stone tools, hearths, and other practical artifacts; clear evidence of artistic intents is not usually evident. The very earliest evidence of artistic endeavour does not appear for some time.

Peru and the northern Andes

Peru, including an area of the northern Andes stretching from Ecuador to northern Chile, has a rich cultural history, with evidence of human habitation dating to roughly 10,000BCE.¹⁸ Prior to the emergence of ceramics in this region around 1850BCE, cave paintings and beads have been found. These finds include rock paintings that controversially date as far back as 9,500BCE in the Toquepala Caves.¹⁹ Burial sites in Peru like one at Telarmachay as old as 8600-7200BCE contained evidence of ritual burial, with red ocher and bead necklaces.²⁰

The earliest ceramics that appear in Peru may have been imported from the Validivia region; indigenous pottery production almost certainly arrived in the highlands around 1800BCE at Kotosh, and on the coast at La Florida circa 1700BCE. Older calabash gourd vessels with human faces burned into them were found at Huaca Prieta, a site dating to 2500-2000BCE.²¹ Huaca Prieta also contained some early patterned and dyed textiles.²²

Early ceramics in northern South America

The earliest evidence of decorated pottery in South America is to be found in two places. A variety of sites in the Santarém region of Brazil contain ceramic sherds dating to a period between 5000 and 3000BCE.²³ Sites in Colombia, at Monsú and San Jacinto contained pottery finds in different styles, and date as far back as 3500BCE.²⁴ This is an area of active research and subject to change.²⁵ The ceramics were decorated with curvilinear incisions. Another ancient site at Puerto Hormiga in the Bolívar Department of Colombia dating to 3100BCE contained pottery fragments that included figured animals in a style related to later Barrancoid cultural finds Colombia and Venezuela.²⁴ Valdivia, Ecuador also has a site dated to roughly 3100BCE containing decorated fragments, as well as figurines, many represent nude females. The Valdivian style stretched as far south as northern Peru,²⁶ and may, according to Lavallée, yet yield older artifacts.²³

By 2000BCE, pottery was evident in eastern Venezuela. The La Gruta style, often painted in red or white, included incised animal figures in the ceramic, as well as ceramic vessels shaped as animal effigies. The Rancho Peludo style of western Venezuela featured relativel simple textile-type decorations and incisions.²⁶ Finds in the central Andes dating to 1800BCE and later appear to be derived from the Valdivian tradition of Ecuador.²⁷

Early art in eastern South America

Relatively little is known about the early settlement of much of South America east of the Andes. This is due to the lack of stone (generally required for leaving durable artifacts), and a jungle environment that rapidly recycles organic materials. Beyond the Andean regions, where the inhabitants were more clearly related to the early cultures of Peru, early finds are generally limited to coastal areas and those areas where there are stone outcrops. While there is evidence of human habitation in northern Brazil as early as 8000BCE,²⁸ and rock art of unknown (or at best uncertain) age, ceramics appear to be the earliest artistic artifacts. The Mina civilization of Brazil (3000-1600BCE) had simple round vessels with a red wash, that were stylistic predecessors to later Bahia and Guyanan cultures.²⁶

Argentina, Chile, and Patagonia

The southern reaches of South America show evidence of human habitation as far back as 10,000BCE. A site at Arroio do Fosseis on the pampa in southern Brazil has shown reliable evidence to that time,²⁹ and the Tierra del Fuego at the southern tip of the continent has been occupied since 7000BCE.³⁰ Artistic finds are scarce; in some parts of Patagonia ceramics were never made, only being introduced by contact with Europeans.³¹

Native arts of Oceania

Australia

From earliest times, the natives of Australia, often known as Aborigines, have been creating distinctive patterns of art. Much of Aboriginal art is transitory, drawn in sand or on the human body to illustrate a place, an animal totem, or a tribal story. Early surviving artworks of the Aborigines are mostly rock paintings. Many are called X-ray paintings because they show the bones and organs of the animals they depict. Some Aboriginal art seems abstract to modern viewers; Aboriginal art often employs geometrical figures and lines to represent landscape, which is often shown from a birds-eye view. For instance, in Aboriginal symbolism, a swirl stands for a watering hole.

The Bradshaws are a unique form of rock art found in Western Australia. They are predominantly human figures drawn in fine detail with accurate anatomical proportioning. They have been dated at over 17,000 years old and debate rages as to who actually created them.

Polynesia

The natives of Polynesia have a distinct artistic heritage. While many of their artifacts were made with organic materials and thus lost to history, some of their most striking achievements survive in clay and stone. Among these are numerous pottery fragments from western Oceania, from the late 2nd millennium BCE. Also, the natives of Polynesia left scattered around their islands Petroglyphs, stone platforms or Marae, and sculptures of ancestor figures, the most famous of which are the Moai of Easter Island.

Notes

^ ^a ^b Chase, pp. 145-146
^ Arbib, p. 82
^ Chase, pp. 146-147
^ Salmony A. Some Paleolithic Ivory-Carvings from Mazine. JSTOR, Vol. 12, No. 1/2. 1949. pp. 104-118. [1].
^ Thackeray.
^ ^a ^b Coulson, pp. 76-77
^ Coulson, p. 86
^ Coulson, pp. 80-82
^ Unesco World Heritage designation.
^ Coulson, p. 132
^ Coulson, p. 134
^ Coulson, p. 140
^ Coulson, p. 147
^ Coulson, pp. 150-155
^ Coulson, pp. 156-160
^ Coulson, pp. 160-162,205
^ Lavallée, pp. 49-50
^ Lavallée, p. 88
^ Lavallée, p. 94
^ Lavallée, p. 115
^ Lavallée, p. 186
^ Bruhns, p. 80
^ ^a ^b Lavallée, p. 182
^ ^a ^b Bruhns, pp. 116-117
^ Lavallée, pp. 176-182
^ ^a ^b ^c Bruhns, pp. 117-118
^ Bruhns, p. 119
^ Lavallée, p. 113
^ Lavallée, p. 108
^ Lavallée, p. 112
^ Lavallée, p. 187

Contents